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The Art of Electronics Third Edition At long last, here is the thoroughly revised and updated, and long-anticipated, third edition of the hugely successful The Art of Electronics. Widely accepted as the best single authoritative text and reference on electronic circuit design, both analog and digital, the first two editions were translated into eight languages, and sold more than a million copies worldwide. The art of electronics is explained by stressing the methods actually used by circuit designers – a combination of some basic laws, rules of thumb, and a nonmathematical treatment that encourages understanding why and how a circuit works. Paul Horowitz is a Research Professor of Physics and of Electrical Engineering at Harvard University, where in 1974 he originated the Laboratory Electronics course from which emerged The Art of Electronics. In addition to his work in circuit design and electronic instrumentation, his research interests have included observational astrophysics, x-ray and particle microscopy, and optical interferometry. He is one of the pioneers of the search for intelligent life beyond Earth (SETI). He is the author of some 200 scientific articles and reports, has consulted widely for industry and government, and is the designer of numerous scientific and photographic instruments. Winfield Hill is by inclination an electronics circuit-design guru. After dropping out of the Chemical Physics graduate program at Harvard University, and obtaining an E.E. degree, he began his engineering career at Harvard’s Electronics Design Center. After 7 years of learning electronics at Harvard he founded Sea Data Corporation, where he spent 16 years designing instruments for Physical Oceanography. In 1988 he was recruited by Edwin Land to join the Rowland Institute for Science. The institute subsequently merged with Harvard University in 2003. As director of the institute’s Electronics Engineering Lab he has designed some 500 scientific instruments. Recent interests include high-voltage RF (to 15 kV), high-current pulsed electronics (to 1200 A), low-noise amplifiers (to sub-nV and pA), and MOSFET pulse generators.
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THE ART OF ELECTRONICS Third Edition Paul Horowitz HARVARD UNIVERSITY Winfield Hill ROWLAND INSTITUTE AT HARVARD
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32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521809269 © Cambridge University Press, 1980, 1989, 2015 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1980 Second edition 1989 Third edition 2015 7th printing 2016 with corrections Printed in the United States of America A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-0-521-80926-9 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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CONTENTS List of Tables xxii 1.6.5 Regulators 34 1.6.6 Circuit applications of diodes 35 Preface to the First Edition xxv 1.6.7 Inductive loads and diode protection 38 Preface to the Second Edition xxvii 1.6.8 Interlude: inductors as friends 39 1.7 Impedance and reactance 40 Preface to the Third Edition xxix 1.7.1 Frequency analysis of reactive circuits 41 ONE: Foundations 1 1.7.2 Reactance of inductors 44 1.1 Introduction 1 1.7.3 Voltages and currents as 1.2 Voltage, current, and resistance 1 complex numbers 44 1.2.1 Voltage and current 1 1.7.4 Reactance of capacitors and 1.2.2 Relationship between voltage inductors 45 and current: resistors 3 1.7.5 Ohm’s law generalized 46 1.2.3 Voltage dividers 7 1.7.6 Power in reactive circuits 47 1.2.4 Voltage sources and current 1.7.7 Voltage dividers generalized 48 sources 8 1.7.8 RC highpass filters 48 1.2.5 Th´evenin equivalent circuit 9 1.7.9 RC lowpass filters 50 1.2.6 Small-signal resistance 12 1.7.10 RC differentiators and 1.2.7 An example: “It’s too hot!” 13 integrators in the frequency 1.3 Signals 13 domain 51 1.3.1 Sinusoidal signals 14 1.7.11 Inductors versus capacitors 51 1.3.2 Signal amplitudes and decibels 14 1.7.12 Phasor diagrams 51 1.3.3 Other signals 15 1.7.13 “Poles” and decibels per octave 52 1.3.4 Logic levels 17 1.7.14 Resonant circuits 52 1.3.5 Signal sources 17 1.7.15 LC filters 54 1.4 Capacitors and ac circuits 18 1.7.16 Other capacitor applications 54 1.4.1 Capacitors 18 1.7.17 Th´evenin’s theorem generalized 55 1.4.2 RC circuits: V and I versus time 21 1.8 Putting it all together – an AM radio 55 1.4.3 Differentiators 25 1.9 Other passive components 56 1.4.4 Integrators 26 1.9.1 Electromechanical devices: 1.4.5 Not quite perfect. . . 28 switches 56 1.5 Inductors and transformers 28 1.9.2 Electromechanical devices: 1.5.1 Inductors 28 relays 59 1.5.2 Transformers 30 1.9.3 Connectors 59 1.6 Diodes and diode circuits 31 1.9.4 Indicators 61 1.6.1 Diodes 31 1.9.5 Variable components 63 1.6.2 Rectification 31 1.10 A parting shot: confusing markings and 1.6.3 Power-supply filtering 32 itty-bitty components 64 1.6.4 Rectifier configurations for 1.10.1 Surface-mount technology: the power supplies 33 joy and the pain 65 ix
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x Contents Art of Electronics Third Edition Additional Exercises for Chapter 1 66 2.6.1 Regulated power supply 123 Review of Chapter 1 68 2.6.2 Temperature controller 123 2.6.3 Simple logic with transistors TWO: Bipolar Transistors 71 and diodes 123 2.1 Introduction 71 Additional Exercises for Chapter 2 124 2.1.1 First transistor model: current Review of Chapter 2 126 amplifier 72 2.2 Some basic transistor circuits 73 THREE: Field-Effect Transistors 131 2.2.1 Transistor switch 73 3.1 Introduction 131 2.2.2 Switching circuit examples 75 3.1.1 FET characteristics 131 2.2.3 Emitter follower 79 3.1.2 FET types 134 2.2.4 Emitter followers as voltage 3.1.3 Universal FET characteristics 136 regulators 82 3.1.4 FET drain characteristics 137 2.2.5 Emitter follower biasing 83 3.1.5 Manufacturing spread of FET 2.2.6 Current source 85 characteristics 138 2.2.7 Common-emitter amplifier 87 3.1.6 Basic FET circuits 140 2.2.8 Unity-gain phase splitter 88 3.2 FET linear circuits 141 2.2.9 Transconductance 89 3.2.1 Some representative JFETs: a 2.3 Ebers–Moll model applied to basic tran- brief tour 141 sistor circuits 90 3.2.2 JFET current sources 142 2.3.1 Improved transistor model: 3.2.3 FET amplifiers 146 transconductance amplifier 90 3.2.4 Differential amplifiers 152 2.3.2 Consequences of the 3.2.5 Oscillators 155 Ebers–Moll model: rules of 3.2.6 Source followers 156 thumb for transistor design 91 3.2.7 FETs as variable resistors 161 2.3.3 The emitter follower revisited 93 3.2.8 FET gate current 163 2.3.4 The common-emitter amplifier 3.3 A closer look at JFETs 165 revisited 93 3.3.1 Drain current versus gate 2.3.5 Biasing the common-emitter voltage 165 amplifier 96 3.3.2 Drain current versus 2.3.6 An aside: the perfect transistor 99 drain-source voltage: output 2.3.7 Current mirrors 101 conductance 166 2.3.8 Differential amplifiers 102 3.3.3 Transconductance versus drain 2.4 Some amplifier building blocks 105 current 168 2.4.1 Push–pull output stages 106 3.3.4 Transconductance versus drain 2.4.2 Darlington connection 109 voltage 170 2.4.3 Bootstrapping 111 3.3.5 JFET capacitance 170 2.4.4 Current sharing in paralleled 3.3.6 Why JFET (versus MOSFET) BJTs 112 amplifiers? 170 2.4.5 Capacitance and Miller effect 113 3.4 FET switches 171 2.4.6 Field-effect transistors 115 3.4.1 FET analog switches 171 2.5 Negative feedback 115 3.4.2 Limitations of FET switches 174 2.5.1 Introduction to feedback 116 3.4.3 Some FET analog switch 2.5.2 Gain equation 116 examples 182 2.5.3 Effects of feedback on amplifier 3.4.4 MOSFET logic switches 184 circuits 117 3.5 Power MOSFETs 187 2.5.4 Two important details 120 3.5.1 High impedance, thermal 2.5.5 Two examples of transistor stability 187 amplifiers with feedback 121 3.5.2 Power MOSFET switching 2.6 Some typical transistor circuits 123 parameters 192
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Art of Electronics Third Edition Contents xi 3.5.3 Power switching from logic 4.5 A detailed look at selected op-amp cir- levels 192 cuits 254 3.5.4 Power switching cautions 196 4.5.1 Active peak detector 254 3.5.5 MOSFETs versus BJTs as 4.5.2 Sample-and-hold 256 high-current switches 201 4.5.3 Active clamp 257 3.5.6 Some power MOSFET circuit 4.5.4 Absolute-value circuit 257 examples 202 4.5.5 A closer look at the integrator 257 3.5.7 IGBTs and other power 4.5.6 A circuit cure for FET leakage 259 semiconductors 207 4.5.7 Differentiators 260 3.6 MOSFETs in linear applications 208 4.6 Op-amp operation with a single power 3.6.1 High-voltage piezo amplifier 208 supply 261 3.6.2 Some depletion-mode circuits 209 4.6.1 Biasing single-supply ac 3.6.3 Paralleling MOSFETs 212 amplifiers 261 3.6.4 Thermal runaway 214 4.6.2 Capacitive loads 264 Review of Chapter 3 219 4.6.3 “Single-supply” op-amps 265 4.6.4 Example: voltage-controlled FOUR: Operational Amplifiers 223 oscillator 267 4.1 Introduction to op-amps – the “perfect 4.6.5 VCO implementation: component” 223 through-hole versus 4.1.1 Feedback and op-amps 223 surface-mount 268 4.1.2 Operational amplifiers 224 4.6.6 Zero-crossing detector 269 4.1.3 The golden rules 225 4.6.7 An op-amp table 270 4.2 Basic op-amp circuits 225 4.7 Other amplifiers and op-amp types 270 4.2.1 Inverting amplifier 225 4.8 Some typical op-amp circuits 274 4.2.2 Noninverting amplifier 226 4.8.1 General-purpose lab amplifier 274 4.2.3 Follower 227 4.8.2 Stuck-node tracer 276 4.2.4 Difference amplifier 227 4.8.3 Load-current-sensing circuit 277 4.2.5 Current sources 228 4.8.4 Integrating suntan monitor 278 4.2.6 Integrators 230 4.9 Feedback amplifier frequency compensa- 4.2.7 Basic cautions for op-amp tion 280 circuits 231 4.9.1 Gain and phase shift versus 4.3 An op-amp smorgasbord 232 frequency 281 4.3.1 Linear circuits 232 4.9.2 Amplifier compensation 4.3.2 Nonlinear circuits 236 methods 282 4.3.3 Op-amp application: 4.9.3 Frequency response of the triangle-wave oscillator 239 feedback network 284 4.3.4 Op-amp application: pinch-off Additional Exercises for Chapter 4 287 voltage tester 240 Review of Chapter 4 288 4.3.5 Programmable pulse-width generator 241 FIVE: Precision Circuits 292 4.3.6 Active lowpass filter 241 5.1 Precision op-amp design techniques 292 4.4 A detailed look at op-amp behavior 242 5.1.1 Precision versus dynamic range 292 4.4.1 Departure from ideal op-amp 5.1.2 Error budget 293 performance 243 5.2 An example: the millivoltmeter, revisited 293 4.4.2 Effects of op-amp limitations on 5.2.1 The challenge: 10 mV, 1%, circuit behavior 249 10 MΩ, 1.8 V single supply 293 4.4.3 Example: sensitive 5.2.2 The solution: precision RRIO millivoltmeter 253 current source 294 4.4.4 Bandwidth and the op-amp 5.3 The lessons: error budget, unspecified pa- current source 254 rameters 295
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xii Contents Art of Electronics Third Edition 5.4 Another example: precision amplifier with 5.11.3 Selecting an auto-zero op-amp 338 null offset 297 5.11.4 Auto-zero miscellany 340 5.4.1 Circuit description 297 5.12 Designs by the masters: Agilent’s accurate 5.5 A precision-design error budget 298 DMMs 342 5.5.1 Error budget 299 5.12.1 It’s impossible! 342 5.6 Component errors 299 5.12.2 Wrong – it is possible! 342 5.6.1 Gain-setting resistors 300 5.12.3 Block diagram: a simple plan 343 5.6.2 The holding capacitor 300 5.12.4 The 34401A 6.5-digit front end 343 5.6.3 Nulling switch 300 5.12.5 The 34420A 7.5-digit frontend 344 5.7 Amplifier input errors 301 5.13 Difference, differential, and instrumenta- 5.7.1 Input impedance 302 tion amplifiers: introduction 347 5.7.2 Input bias current 302 5.7.3 Voltage offset 304 5.14 Difference amplifier 348 5.7.4 Common-mode rejection 305 5.14.1 Basic circuit operation 348 5.7.5 Power-supply rejection 306 5.14.2 Some applications 349 5.7.6 Nulling amplifier: input errors 306 5.14.3 Performance parameters 352 5.14.4 Circuit variations 355 5.8 Amplifier output errors 307 5.8.1 Slew rate: general 5.15 Instrumentation amplifier 356 considerations 307 5.15.1 A first (but naive) guess 357 5.8.2 Bandwidth and settling time 308 5.15.2 Classic three-op-amp 5.8.3 Crossover distortion and output instrumentation amplifier 357 impedance 309 5.15.3 Input-stage considerations 358 5.8.4 Unity-gain power buffers 311 5.15.4 A “roll-your-own” 5.8.5 Gain error 312 instrumentation amplifier 359 5.8.6 Gain nonlinearity 312 5.15.5 A riff on robust input protection 362 5.8.7 Phase error and “active 5.16 Instrumentation amplifier miscellany 362 compensation” 314 5.16.1 Input current and noise 362 5.9 RRIO op-amps: the good, the bad, and the 5.16.2 Common-mode rejection 364 ugly 315 5.16.3 Source impedance and CMRR 365 5.9.1 Input issues 316 5.16.4 EMI and input protection 365 5.9.2 Output issues 316 5.16.5 Offset and CMRR trimming 366 5.10 Choosing a precision op-amp 319 5.16.6 Sensing at the load 366 5.10.1 “Seven precision op-amps” 319 5.16.7 Input bias path 366 5.10.2 Number per package 322 5.16.8 Output voltage range 366 5.10.3 Supply voltage, signal range 322 5.16.9 Application example: current 5.10.4 Single-supply operation 322 source 367 5.10.5 Offset voltage 323 5.16.10 Other configurations 368 5.10.6 Voltage noise 323 5.16.11 Chopper and auto-zero 5.10.7 Bias current 325 instrumentation amplifiers 370 5.10.8 Current noise 326 5.16.12 Programmable gain 5.10.9 CMRR and PSRR 328 instrumentation amplifiers 370 5.10.10 GBW, f , slew rate and “m,” 5.16.13 Generating a differential output 372 T and settling time 328 5.17 Fully differential amplifiers 373 5.10.11 Distortion 329 5.17.1 Differential amplifiers: basic 5.10.12 “Two out of three isn’t bad”: concepts 374 creating a perfect op-amp 332 5.17.2 Differential amplifier 5.11 Auto-zeroing (chopper-stabilized) ampli- application example: wideband fiers 333 analog link 380 5.11.1 Auto-zero op-amp properties 334 5.17.3 Differential-input ADCs 380 5.11.2 When to use auto-zero op-amps 338 5.17.4 Impedance matching 382
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Art of Electronics Third Edition Contents xiii 5.17.5 Differential amplifier selection 7.2.4 Timing with digital counters 465 criteria 383 Review of Chapter 7 470 Review of Chapter 5 388 EIGHT: Low-Noise Techniques 473 SIX: Filters 391 8.1 ‘‘Noise” 473 6.1 Introduction 391 8.1.1 Johnson (Nyquist) noise 474 6.2 Passive filters 391 8.1.2 Shot noise 475 6.2.1 Frequency response with RC 8.1.3 1/f noise (flicker noise) 476 filters 391 8.1.4 Burst noise 477 6.2.2 Ideal performance with LC 8.1.5 Band-limited noise 477 filters 393 8.1.6 Interference 478 6.2.3 Several simple examples 393 8.2 Signal-to-noise ratio and noise figure 478 6.2.4 Enter active filters: an overview 396 8.2.1 Noise power density and 6.2.5 Key filter performance criteria 399 bandwidth 479 6.2.6 Filter types 400 8.2.2 Signal-to-noise ratio 479 6.2.7 Filter implementation 405 8.2.3 Noise figure 479 6.3 Active-filter circuits 406 8.2.4 Noise temperature 480 6.3.1 VCVS circuits 407 8.3 Bipolar transistor amplifier noise 481 6.3.2 VCVS filter design using our 8.3.1 Voltage noise, en 481 simplified table 407 8.3.2 Current noise in 483 6.3.3 State-variable filters 410 8.3.3 BJT voltage noise, revisited 484 6.3.4 Twin-T notch filters 414 8.3.4 A simple design example: 6.3.5 Allpass filters 415 loudspeaker as microphone 486 6.3.6 Switched-capacitor filters 415 8.3.5 Shot noise in current sources 6.3.7 Digital signal processing 418 and emitter followers 487 6.3.8 Filter miscellany 422 8.4 Finding en from noise-figure specifica- Additional Exercises for Chapter 6 422 tions 489 Review of Chapter 6 423 8.4.1 Step 1: NF versus IC 489 8.4.2 Step 2: NF versus Rs 489 SEVEN: Oscillators and Timers 425 8.4.3 Step 3: getting to en 490 7.1 Oscillators 425 8.4.4 Step 4: the spectrum of en 491 7.1.1 Introduction to oscillators 425 8.4.5 The spectrum of in 491 7.1.2 Relaxation oscillators 425 8.4.6 When operating current is not 7.1.3 The classic oscillator–timer your choice 491 chip: the 555 428 8.5 Low-noise design with bipolar transistors 492 7.1.4 Other relaxation-oscillator ICs 432 8.5.1 Noise-figure example 492 7.1.5 Sinewave oscillators 435 8.5.2 Charting amplifier noise with en 7.1.6 Quartz-crystal oscillators 443 and in 493 7.1.7 Higher stability: TCXO, 8.5.3 Noise resistance 494 OCXO, and beyond 450 8.5.4 Charting comparative noise 495 7.1.8 Frequency synthesis: DDS and 8.5.5 Low-noise design with BJTs: PLL 451 two examples 495 7.1.9 Quadrature oscillators 453 8.5.6 Minimizing noise: BJTs, FETs, 7.1.10 Oscillator “jitter” 457 and transformers 496 7.2 Timers 457 8.5.7 A design example: 40¢ 7.2.1 Step-triggered pulses 458 “lightning detector” preamp 497 7.2.2 Monostable multivibrators 461 8.5.8 Selecting a low-noise bipolar 7.2.3 A monostable application: transistor 500 limiting pulse width and duty 8.5.9 An extreme low-noise design cycle 465 challenge 505
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xiv Contents Art of Electronics Third Edition 8.6 Low-noise design with JFETS 509 8.11.13 Test fixture for compensation 8.6.1 Voltage noise of JFETs 509 and calibration 554 8.6.2 Current noise of JFETs 511 8.11.14 A final remark 555 8.6.3 Design example: low-noise 8.12 Noise measurements and noise sources 555 wideband JFET “hybrid” 8.12.1 Measurement without a noise amplifiers 512 source 555 8.6.4 Designs by the masters: SR560 8.12.2 An example: transistor-noise low-noise preamplifier 512 test circuit 556 8.6.5 Selecting low-noise JFETS 515 8.12.3 Measurement with a noise 8.7 Charting the bipolar–FET shootout 517 source 556 8.7.1 What about MOSFETs? 519 8.12.4 Noise and signal sources 558 8.8 Noise in differential and feedback ampli- 8.13 Bandwidth limiting and rms voltage mea- fiers 520 surement 561 8.9 Noise in operational amplifier circuits 521 8.13.1 Limiting the bandwidth 561 8.9.1 Guide to Table 8.3: choosing 8.13.2 Calculating the integrated noise 563 low-noise op-amps 525 8.13.3 Op-amp “low-frequency noise” 8.9.2 Power-supply rejection ratio 533 with asymmetric filter 564 8.9.3 Wrapup: choosing a low-noise 8.13.4 Finding the 1/f corner frequency 566 op-amp 533 8.13.5 Measuring the noise voltage 567 8.9.4 Low-noise instrumentation 8.13.6 Measuring the noise current 569 amplifiers and video amplifiers 533 8.13.7 Another way: roll-your-own√ 8.9.5 Low-noise hybrid op-amps 534 fA/ Hz instrument 571 8.10 Signal transformers 535 8.13.8 Noise potpourri 574 8.10.1 A low-noise wideband amplifier 8.14 Signal-to-noise improvement by band- with transformer feedback 536 width narrowing 574 8.11 Noise in transimpedance amplifiers 537 8.14.1 Lock-in detection 575 8.11.1 Summary of the stability 8.15 Power-supply noise 578 problem 537 8.15.1 Capacitance multiplier 578 8.11.2 Amplifier input noise 538 8.16 Interference, shielding, and grounding 579 8.11.3 The enC noise problem 538 8.16.1 Interfering signals 579 8.11.4 Noise in the transresistance 8.16.2 Signal grounds 582 amplifier 539 8.16.3 Grounding between instruments 583 8.11.5 An example: wideband JFET Additional Exercises for Chapter 8 588 photodiode amplifier 540 8.11.6 Noise versus gain in the Review of Chapter 8 590 transimpedance amplifier 540 8.11.7 Output bandwidth limiting in NINE: Voltage Regulation and Power Conver- the transimpedance amplifier 542 sion 594 8.11.8 Composite transimpedance 9.1 Tutorial: from zener to series-pass linear amplifiers 543 regulator 595 8.11.9 Reducing input capacitance: 9.1.1 Adding feedback 596 bootstrapping the 9.2 Basic linear regulator circuits with the transimpedance amplifier 547 classic 723 598 8.11.10 Isolating input capacitance: 9.2.1 The 723 regulator 598 cascoding the transimpedance 9.2.2 In defense of the beleaguered amplifier 548 723 600 8.11.11 Transimpedance amplifiers with 9.3 Fully integrated linear regulators 600 capacitive feedback 552 9.3.1 Taxonomy of linear regulator 8.11.12 Scanning tunneling microscope ICs 601 preamplifier 553 9.3.2 Three-terminal fixed regulators 601
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Art of Electronics Third Edition Contents xv 9.3.3 Three-terminal adjustable 9.7.1 The ac-to-dc input stage 660 regulators 602 9.7.2 The dc-to-dc converter 662 9.3.4 317-style regulator: application 9.8 A real-world switcher example 665 hints 604 9.8.1 Switchers: top-level view 665 9.3.5 317-style regulator: circuit 9.8.2 Switchers: basic operation 665 examples 608 9.8.3 Switchers: looking more closely 668 9.3.6 Lower-dropout regulators 610 9.8.4 The “reference design” 671 9.3.7 True low-dropout regulators 611 9.8.5 Wrapup: general comments on 9.3.8 Current-reference 3-terminal line-powered switching power regulator 611 supplies 672 9.3.9 Dropout voltages compared 612 9.8.6 When to use switchers 672 9.3.10 Dual-voltage regulator circuit 9.9 Inverters and switching amplifiers 673 example 613 9.10 Voltage references 674 9.3.11 Linear regulator choices 613 9.10.1 Zener diode 674 9.3.12 Linear regulator idiosyncrasies 613 9.10.2 Bandgap (VBE) reference 679 9.3.13 Noise and ripple filtering 619 9.10.3 JFET pinch-off (VP) reference 680 9.3.14 Current sources 620 9.10.4 Floating-gate reference 681 9.4 Heat and power design 623 9.10.5 Three-terminal precision 9.4.1 Power transistors and references 681 heatsinking 624 9.10.6 Voltage reference noise 682 9.4.2 Safe operating area 627 9.10.7 Voltage references: additional 9.5 From ac line to unregulated supply 628 Comments 683 9.5.1 ac-line components 629 9.11 Commercial power-supply modules 684 9.5.2 Transformer 632 9.12 Energy storage: batteries and capacitors 686 9.5.3 dc components 633 9.12.1 Battery characteristics 687 9.5.4 Unregulated split supply – on 9.12.2 Choosing a battery 688 the bench! 634 9.12.3 Energy storage in capacitors 688 9.5.5 Linear versus switcher: ripple 9.13 Additional topics in power regulation 690 and noise 635 9.13.1 Overvoltage crowbars 690 9.6 Switching regulators and dc–dc convert- 9.13.2 Extending input-voltage range 693 ers 636 9.13.3 Foldback current limiting 693 9.6.1 Linear versus switching 636 9.13.4 Outboard pass transistor 695 9.6.2 Switching converter topologies 638 9.13.5 High-voltage regulators 695 9.6.3 Inductorless switching Review of Chapter 9 699 converters 638 9.6.4 Converters with inductors: the TEN: Digital Logic 703 basic non-isolated topologies 641 10.1 Basic logic concepts 703 9.6.5 Step-down (buck) converter 642 10.1.1 Digital versus analog 703 9.6.6 Step-up (boost) converter 647 10.1.2 Logic states 704 9.6.7 Inverting converter 648 10.1.3 Number codes 705 9.6.8 Comments on the non-isolated 10.1.4 Gates and truth tables 708 converters 649 10.1.5 Discrete circuits for gates 711 9.6.9 Voltage mode and current mode 651 10.1.6 Gate-logic example 712 9.6.10 Converters with transformers: 10.1.7 Assertion-level logic notation 713 the basic designs 653 10.2 Digital integrated circuits: CMOS and 9.6.11 The flyback converter 655 Bipolar (TTL) 714 9.6.12 Forward converters 656 10.2.1 Catalog of common gates 715 9.6.13 Bridge converters 659 10.2.2 IC gate circuits 717 9.7 Ac-line-powered (“offline”) switching 10.2.3 CMOS and bipolar (“TTL”) converters 660 characteristics 718
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xvi Contents Art of Electronics Third Edition 10.2.4 Three-state and open-collector 11.3 An example: pseudorandom byte genera- devices 720 tor 770 10.3 Combinational logic 722 11.3.1 How to make pseudorandom 10.3.1 Logic identities 722 bytes 771 10.3.2 Minimization and Karnaugh 11.3.2 Implementation in standard maps 723 logic 772 10.3.3 Combinational functions 11.3.3 Implementation with available as ICs 724 programmable logic 772 10.4 Sequential logic 728 11.3.4 Programmable logic – HDL 10.4.1 Devices with memory: flip-flops 728 entry 775 10.4.2 Clocked flip-flops 730 11.3.5 Implementation with a 10.4.3 Combining memory and gates: microcontroller 777 sequential logic 734 11.4 Advice 782 10.4.4 Synchronizer 737 11.4.1 By Technologies 782 10.4.5 Monostable multivibrator 739 11.4.2 By User Communities 785 10.4.6 Single-pulse generation with Review of Chapter 11 787 flip-flops and counters 739 10.5 Sequential functions available as inte- TWELVE: Logic Interfacing 790 grated circuits 740 10.5.1 Latches and registers 740 12.1 CMOS and TTL logic interfacing 790 10.5.2 Counters 741 12.1.1 Logic family chronology – a 10.5.3 Shift registers 744 brief history 790 10.5.4 Programmable logic devices 745 12.1.2 Input and output characteristics 794 10.5.5 Miscellaneous sequential 12.1.3 Interfacing between logic functions 746 families 798 10.6 Some typical digital circuits 748 12.1.4 Driving digital logic inputs 802 10.6.1 Modulo-n counter: a timing 12.1.5 Input protection 804 example 748 12.1.6 Some comments about logic 10.6.2 Multiplexed LED digital display 751 inputs 805 10.6.3 An n-pulse generator 752 12.1.7 Driving digital logic from 10.7 Micropower digital design 753 comparators or op-amps 806 10.7.1 Keeping CMOS low power 754 12.2 An aside: probing digital signals 808 10.8 Logic pathology 755 12.3 Comparators 809 10.8.1 dc problems 755 12.3.1 Outputs 810 10.8.2 Switching problems 756 12.3.2 Inputs 812 10.8.3 Congenital weaknesses of TTL 12.3.3 Other parameters 815 and CMOS 758 12.3.4 Other cautions 816 Additional Exercises for Chapter 10 760 12.4 Driving external digital loads from logic Review of Chapter 10 762 levels 817 12.4.1 Positive loads: direct drive 817 ELEVEN: Programmable Logic Devices 764 12.4.2 Positive loads: transistor 11.1 A brief history 764 assisted 820 11.2 The hardware 765 12.4.3 Negative or ac loads 821 11.2.1 The basic PAL 765 12.4.4 Protecting power switches 823 11.2.2 The PLA 768 12.4.5 nMOS LSI interfacing 826 11.2.3 The FPGA 768 12.5 Optoelectronics: emitters 829 11.2.4 The configuration memory 769 12.5.1 Indicators and LEDs 829 11.2.5 Other programmable logic 12.5.2 Laser diodes 834 devices 769 12.5.3 Displays 836 11.2.6 The software 769 12.6 Optoelectronics: detectors 840
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Art of Electronics Third Edition Contents xvii 12.6.1 Photodiodes and 13.2.8 PWM as digital-to-analog phototransistors 841 converter 888 12.6.2 Photomultipliers 842 13.2.9 Frequency-to-voltage converters 890 12.7 Optocouplers and relays 843 13.2.10 Rate multiplier 890 12.7.1 I: Phototransistor output 13.2.11 Choosing a DAC 891 optocouplers 844 13.3 Some DAC application examples 891 12.7.2 II: Logic-output optocouplers 844 13.3.1 General-purpose laboratory 12.7.3 III: Gate driver optocouplers 846 source 891 12.7.4 IV: Analog-oriented 13.3.2 Eight-channel source 893 optocouplers 847 13.3.3 Nanoamp wide-compliance 12.7.5 V: Solid-state relays (transistor bipolarity current source 894 output) 848 13.3.4 Precision coil driver 897 12.7.6 VI: Solid-state relays (triac/SCR 13.4 Converter linearity – a closer look 899 output) 849 13.5 Analog-to-digital converters 900 12.7.7 VII: ac-input optocouplers 851 13.5.1 Digitizing: aliasing, sampling 12.7.8 Interrupters 851 rate, and sampling depth 900 12.8 Optoelectronics: fiber-optic digital links 852 13.5.2 ADC Technologies 902 12.8.1 TOSLINK 852 13.6 ADCs I: Parallel (“flash”) encoder 903 12.8.2 Versatile Link 854 13.6.1 Modified flash encoders 903 12.8.3 ST/SC glass-fiber modules 855 13.6.2 Driving flash, folding, and RF 12.8.4 Fully integrated high-speed ADCs 904 fiber-transceiver modules 855 13.6.3 Undersampling flash-converter 12.9 Digital signals and long wires 856 example 907 12.9.1 On-board interconnections 856 13.7 ADCs II: Successive approximation 908 12.9.2 Intercard connections 858 13.7.1 A simple SAR example 909 12.10 Driving Cables 858 13.7.2 Variations on successive 12.10.1 Coaxial cable 858 approximation 909 12.10.2 The right way – I: Far-end 13.7.3 An A/D conversion example 910 termination 860 13.8 ADCs III: integrating 912 12.10.3 Differential-pair cable 864 13.8.1 Voltage-to-frequency 12.10.4 RS-232 871 conversion 912 12.10.5 Wrapup 874 13.8.2 Single-slope integration 914 Review of Chapter 12 875 13.8.3 Integrating converters 914 13.8.4 Dual-slope integration 914 13.8.5 Analog switches in conversion THIRTEEN : Digital meets Analog 879 applications (a detour) 916 13.1 Some preliminaries 879 13.8.6 Designs by the masters: 13.1.1 The basic performance Agilent’s world-class parameters 879 “multislope” converters 918 13.1.2 Codes 880 13.9 ADCs IV: delta–sigma 922 13.1.3 Converter errors 880 13.9.1 A simple delta–sigma for our 13.1.4 Stand-alone versus integrated 880 suntan monitor 922 13.2 Digital-to-analog converters 881 13.9.2 Demystifying the delta–sigma 13.2.1 Resistor-string DACs 881 converter 923 13.2.2 R–2R ladder DACs 882 13.9.3 ΔΣ ADC and DAC 923 13.2.3 Current-steering DACs 883 13.9.4 The ΔΣ process 924 13.2.4 Multiplying DACs 884 13.9.5 An aside: “noise shaping” 927 13.2.5 Generating a voltage output 885 13.9.6 The bottom line 928 13.2.6 Six DACs 886 13.9.7 A simulation 928 13.2.7 Delta–sigma DACs 888 13.9.8 What about DACs? 930
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xviii Contents Art of Electronics Third Edition 13.9.9 Pros and Cons of ΔΣ 13.14.8 A “hybrid digital filter” 983 oversampling converters 931 Additional Exercises for Chapter 13 984 13.9.10 Idle tones 932 Review of Chapter 13 985 13.9.11 Some delta–sigma application examples 932 FOURTEEN: Computers, Controllers, and 13.10 ADCs: choices and tradeoffs 938 Data Links 989 13.10.1 Delta–sigma and the 14.1 Computer architecture: CPU and data bus 990 competition 938 14.1.1 CPU 990 13.10.2 Sampling versus averaging 14.1.2 Memory 991 ADCs: noise 940 14.1.3 Mass memory 991 13.10.3 Micropower A/D converters 941 14.1.4 Graphics, network, parallel, and 13.11 Some unusual A/D and D/A converters 942 serial ports 992 13.11.1 ADE7753 multifunction ac 14.1.5 Real-time I/O 992 power metering IC 943 14.1.6 Data bus 992 13.11.2 AD7873 touchscreen digitizer 944 14.2 A computer instruction set 993 13.11.3 AD7927 ADC with sequencer 945 14.2.1 Assembly language and 13.11.4 AD7730 precision machine language 993 bridge-measurement subsystem 945 14.2.2 Simplified “x86” instruction set 993 13.12 Some A/D conversion system examples 946 14.2.3 A programming example 996 13.12.1 Multiplexed 16-channel 14.3 Bus signals and interfacing 997 data-acquisition system 946 14.3.1 Fundamental bus signals: data, 13.12.2 Parallel multichannel address, strobe 997 successive-approximation 14.3.2 Programmed I/O: data out 998 data-acquisition system 950 14.3.3 Programming the XY vector 13.12.3 Parallel multichannel display 1000 delta–sigma data-acquisition 14.3.4 Programmed I/O: data in 1001 system 952 14.3.5 Programmed I/O: status 13.13 Phase-locked loops 955 registers 1002 13.13.1 Introduction to phase-locked 14.3.6 Programmed I/O: command loops 955 registers 1004 13.13.2 PLL components 957 14.3.7 Interrupts 1005 13.13.3 PLL design 960 14.3.8 Interrupt handling 1006 13.13.4 Design example: frequency 14.3.9 Interrupts in general 1008 multiplier 961 14.3.10 Direct memory access 1010 13.13.5 PLL capture and lock 964 14.3.11 Summary of PC104/ISA 8-bit 13.13.6 Some PLL applications 966 bus signals 1012 13.13.7 Wrapup: noise and jitter 14.3.12 The PC104 as an embedded rejection in PLLs 974 single-board computer 1013 13.14 Pseudorandom bit sequences and noise 14.4 Memory types 1014 generation 974 14.4.1 Volatile and non-volatile 13.14.1 Digital-noise generation 974 memory 1014 13.14.2 Feedback shift register 14.4.2 Static versus dynamic RAM 1015 sequences 975 14.4.3 Static RAM 1016 13.14.3 Analog noise generation from 14.4.4 Dynamic RAM 1018 maximal-length sequences 977 14.4.5 Nonvolatile memory 1021 13.14.4 Power spectrum of shift-register 14.4.6 Memory wrapup 1026 sequences 977 14.5 Other buses and data links: overview 1027 13.14.5 Low-pass filtering 979 14.6 Parallel buses and data links 1028 13.14.6 Wrapup 981 14.6.1 Parallel chip “bus” interface – 13.14.7 “True” random noise generators 982 an example 1028
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Art of Electronics Third Edition Contents xix 14.6.2 Parallel chip data links – two 15.7 Design example 5: stabilized mechanical high-speed examples 1030 platform 1077 14.6.3 Other parallel computer buses 1030 15.8 Peripheral ICs for microcontrollers 1078 14.6.4 Parallel peripheral buses and 15.8.1 Peripherals with direct data links 1031 connection 1079 14.7 Serial buses and data links 1032 15.8.2 Peripherals with SPI connection 1082 14.7.1 SPI 1032 15.8.3 Peripherals with I2C connection 1084 14.7.2 I2C 2-wire interface (“TWI”) 1034 15.8.4 Some important hardware 14.7.3 Dallas–Maxim “1-wire” serial constraints 1086 interface 1035 15.9 Development environment 1086 14.7.4 JTAG 1036 15.9.1 Software 1086 14.7.5 Clock-be-gone: clock recovery 1037 15.9.2 Real-time programming 14.7.6 SATA, eSATA, and SAS 1037 constraints 1088 14.7.7 PCI Express 1037 15.9.3 Hardware 1089 14.7.8 Asynchronous serial (RS-232, 15.9.4 The Arduino Project 1092 RS-485) 1038 15.10 Wrapup 1092 14.7.9 Manchester coding 1039 15.10.1 How expensive are the tools? 1092 14.7.10 Biphase coding 1041 15.10.2 When to use microcontrollers 1093 14.7.11 RLL binary: bit stuffing 1041 15.10.3 How to select a microcontroller 1094 14.7.12 RLL coding: 8b/10b and others 1041 15.10.4 A parting shot 1094 14.7.13 USB 1042 Review of Chapter 15 1095 14.7.14 FireWire 1042 14.7.15 Controller Area Network APPENDIX A: Math Review 1097 (CAN) 1043 A.1 Trigonometry, exponentials, and loga- 14.7.16 Ethernet 1045 rithms 1097 14.8 Number formats 1046 A.2 Complex numbers 1097 14.8.1 Integers 1046 A.3 Differentiation (Calculus) 1099 14.8.2 Floating-point numbers 1047 A.3.1 Derivatives of some common Review of Chapter 14 1049 functions 1099 A.3.2 Some rules for combining FIFTEEN: Microcontrollers 1053 derivatives 1100 A.3.3 Some examples of 15.1 Introduction 1053 differentiation 1100 15.2 Design example 1: suntan monitor (V) 1054 15.2.1 Implementation with a APPENDIX B: How to Draw Schematic Dia- microcontroller 1054 grams 1101 15.2.2 Microcontroller code B.1 General principles 1101 (“firmware”) 1056 B.2 Rules 1101 15.3 Overview of popular microcontroller fam- B.3 Hints 1103 ilies 1059 B.4 A humble example 1103 15.3.1 On-chip peripherals 1061 15.4 Design example 2: ac power control 1062 APPENDIX C: Resistor Types 1104 15.4.1 Microcontroller implementation 1062 C.1 Some history 1104 15.4.2 Microcontroller code 1064 C.2 Available resistance values 1104 15.5 Design example 3: frequency synthesizer 1065 C.3 Resistance marking 1105 15.5.1 Microcontroller code 1067 C.4 Resistor types 1105 15.6 Design example 4: thermal controller 1069 C.5 Confusion derby 1105 15.6.1 The hardware 1070 15.6.2 The control loop 1074 APPENDIX D: Th´evenin’s Theorem 1107 15.6.3 Microcontroller code 1075 D.1 The proof 1107
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