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Trait & Behavioural Theories: Trait theory addresses leadership from the viewpoint that leadership is driven by the individual’s characteristics. Some of those characteristics might be genetic while others might be learned. Larders are born, not made. Leaders are born with traits that will help them become successful leader.(PICSID) 1. Physical attractiveness:Emphasizes factors like good and fit looking, commanding voice and style of presentation. 2. Intelligence (IQ) 3. Confidence:shows the trust by employees. 4. Social Skills (EI). 5. Integrity:– is the most important trait to be a successful leader. It is about the truth and keeping your word, as well as about not asking for things you wouldn’t do by yourself 6. Desire to lead. Many descriptions of leadership emphasize that effective leadership is about winning the minds and hearts of others. Winning minds is an intellectual task and requires the application of cognitive skills such as reasoning and logic. However, winning hearts is an emotional task and requires the exercise of social and emotional intelligence. EI: Self Awareness – Self Management – Awareness of others – Relationship with others – Pursuing the goals. Behaviour Theory: analyzing the current leadership behaviours: 1. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y: Two main components are task and relation-oriented managers. 2. Black and Mouton Managerial Grid: They propose that there are five important
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positions on the grid to consider: Impoverished management - Country club management - Organisation (wo) man- Authority–obedience - Team management. 3. Tannenbaum and Schmidt (Leadership Continuum): Leader should choose the style within this continuum to maximize influence on followers (depending upon the degree to which leader use their authority): Tell: This is an authoritarian style. Leaders take decisions and control. Sell: leaders take decisions and control but in softer and more persuasive way. Consult: Leaders consult with followers and obtain their views, but reserve the right to make decisions. Joins: Totally participative way. 4. Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership: [Leaders choose a leadership behaviour to suit the situation]. Rests on basic assumptions: There is no single all-purpose leadership style, but rather what is appropriate depends upon nature of followers and tasks. Leader behaviour has two components: directive – supportive. Leadership style should be adjusted to the developing level of followers (which is relates to three factors: Competence – Commitment – Confidence): Level D1 – Enthusiastic Beginner → S1 DIRECT Level D2 – Disillusioned Learner → S2 COACH Level D3 – Regular Contribute → S3 SUPPORT Level D4 – Peak Performer → S4 DELEGATE 5. Fielder’s Model of “Contingency Theory”: [Leadership style is relatively stable; such situation must be selected to suit the leader’s style]. Every leader has set of personality characteristics to adapt a particular style. Fiedler develop a measure (of the leader
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attitude) called LPC. High LPC leader: prefer relationship oriented. Low LPC leaders: prefer task oriented. There are three situational variables: leader-member relationship – task structure – positional power. 6. House and Mitchell’s “Path-goal theory”: Behaviour theory which based on the Expectancy-Valence theory of Vroom. House identified four main types of leadership behaviour: • Directive – giving clear instructions as to what the goal is and the way they should go about accomplishing it; • Supportive – encouraging and supporting individuals in accomplishing the goal; • Participative – involving individuals in the goal setting process, and listening to their opinions and views; • Achievement oriented – setting challenging goals and building confidence in followers to achieve those goals 7. Transaction leadership: linked to stability, order, tradition, hierarchy and autocratic style. Use contingent rewards, management by exception (active and passive) as well as laissez-faire style when it comes to overtake responsibility which is not directly assigned to your task.
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Transformation leadership: associated with change. Use their charisma, emotional intelligence (analysis of trait theory useful in developing a transformational style) inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation as well as individual consideration to engage hearts, minds and emotion of followers. Change Agent: Recognizing the need for change. Creating a vision for change. Implement the change. Charisma: a charismatic leader show five behavioural attributes: Articulation a vision. Challenge the status quo. Empower others and sensitivity to followers’ need. Risk taker Unconventional behaviour.
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Leader – Follower relationship: 1. Good (effective) follower: Speak the truth. Share their best ideas. Willing to be a follower. Speak up when needed. 2. Five types of follower: Exemplary and effective follower: conduct work with energy, self- starters, and problem solvers, rated highly by superiors. Survivors: go along with leaders and adapt to any new circumstances. Yes men (people): Not enterprising (energetic) and little servile. Sheep: Do what is asked of them. Passive and unengaged, lack sense of responsibility. The alienated: independent in thinking but passive in their working. 3. Good leader help their follower (Path-Goal Theory application): Understand the goals. Think for themselves. Act in pursuit of these goals. 4. Using situational leadership behaviour model: the development level and corresponding leadership style. 5. Using Fiedler’s contingency model:
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6. Three types of leader-follower relation: Regressive :( Not constructive) tend to prevail when the need for physical safety is the focus of the followers’ concerns. Examples: Anti-follower, anti-leader. Symbolic: Occur when followers are concerned with personal and social identity. Followers can seek to enhance their sense of self-worth. Developmental: Come to the fore when safety and identity needs are met. Followers may achieve exceptional organizational performance and growth in capability. Example: Servant leadership: leader works with follower on the basis that they participate in the pursuit of common Organisational purpose. 7. The leader has to be transformational by demonstrating Kouzes & posner’s five exemplary behaviour: Model the way. Inspire a shared vision. Challenge the status quo. Enable other to act (empowerment). Encourage the heart. 8. Leaders who reported higher levels of emotional intelligence were perceived by their followers as higher in transformational leadership and more effective as leaders. 9. Leader-follower relations should be considered with cultural content, anti-follower, anti-leader in mind. 10. Followers were not born into that role but become followers as a result of work experience. And they could be trained to be exemplary followers. 11. Distributed leadership: stems from leaders’ willingness to let others lead for some activities, thus developing the follower and increase skills base for leadership in the organisation.
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Leadership development: The focus of leadership style should shift from developing the individual to leadership function. Change should consider recruitment, succession planning, job placement, compensation and executive development. This new approach to leadership development is called succession management, which are based on two steps: Identify (the potential leader(s)) – Development (their knowledge by training). 1. Leader need to know the context of change: A change in the mode of conduct required of leaders from transactional to transformational. the need to change organizations, but in uncertain ways; A change from heroic leadership executed almost entirely by the individual to leadership carried out by leadership teams, teams that are cohesive, that have shared visions and which develop skills to complement each other. A change from stable individual jobs to strategic, constantly redefined tasks that are often performed by teams. A change from simple, logical, bureaucratic forms of organizations to complex, global and organic forms, constantly coping with change. A change in followers from industrial-era to knowledge-era mindsets. 2. Frame works: most of management leadership programs focus on overall leadership development which process the following characteristics: A culture of leadership development, actively driven and supported from the top; Leadership development aims that are woven into and evolve with organizational strategy.
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There are five types (models) of development in organizations: I. The ladder: leaders develop step by step to be promoted. II. The circus: everyone tries hard to have better performance, and better ones goes up. III. The jungle: law of jungle, first to survival, then beat the competition. IV. Matrix: send staff in deferent department, to develop their skills in deferent areas. V. Ranking (academy): send them on training course, train them and rank them depending on their performance. Programs aims based on competencies thought to be specific to the organization: Competencies can be defined be either using data based, value based, strategy based or based on learning theory. support of leadership development through congruent HR and performance management systems: the development and overall leadership has following processes: 1. A job posting system. 2. A succession planning system. 3. In-house leadership development resources. 4. Systematic executive involvement. A broad interface with external resources. 3. Organizational management practice: University programs. Job assignment: Rotation, Secondments, Job swapping, Job sharing and back to basics” assignment. Assessment and feedback: Assessment centers, 360 feedback, Psychometrics, Performance reviews.
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One – to – one support: Mentoring and shadowing and Coaching. Structured learning program: In house training, E-learning, corporate universities, Community service, specialized programs, Employee Assistance programs, learning centers. If leader uses these practices and improve his leadership style then he would be liked by followers, survive and fulfill his vision. 4. A three track leader development design: The leadership programme can be divided into three tracks: Business track: learn more about the business. Leadership track: learn more about leadership theories/skills/behaviour. Personal track (self-development): better understanding of self to increase self-leadership. 5. Learning theories: I. Behaviourism: stimulus-response): rewarding behaviours. II. Cognitivism: internal mental process. Present same skill in variety of ways: reading – discussion – practice – observation. III. Social learning: observing others. IV. Androgogy: teaching adults. Adults motivate when there is immediate application of the skills. V. Learning Style: Activist – Pragmatic – Theorist – Reflector. VI. Action learning: learning by doing real projects at work. L=P+Q; (L) learning, (P) programmed knowledge, (Q) questions.
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Strategic leadership: Strategic leadership is about choosing and implementing a strategy. Strategic leadership is defined by Rowe as the ability to influence individuals to modify their day to day activities. 1. Strategy options (Strategies school): There are three strategy options: I. The era of grand design - based on heroic leaders. This type of strategy focuses on the current environment and expected changes in that environment (Market analysis, (DENTPC), demographic, economic, natural, political, socio-cultural), and builds a strategy based on that. A SWOT analysis can be used to consider strengths and weaknesses within the company, and opportunities and threats may exist outside. From this a strategy is developed, and the conduct of the organisation is selected (4PS; product, price, place, promotion) – who should we employ? What reward system shall we use? How will we deliver? Performance is expected to follow: ENVIRONMENT → STRATEGY → CONDUCT → PERFORMANCE While this process is certainly better than the strategy, it does have its shortcomings. It relies heavily on one person to make decisions – not entirely relevant to the transformational leadership. There might also be a temptation to think this can be done once whereas actually the strategy should be re-visited, at least annually, to ensure it is still fit for purpose. II. Positioning strategy- based on analysis of the industries. A strategy of either cost leadership, product differentiations on or focus is selected, based on an analysis of the competitive marketplace. Tools that might
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be used for this analysis include: Porter’s Five Forces: 1. Threat of New Entrants 2. Threat of substitutes 3. Bargaining power of suppliers 4. Bargaining power of buyers 5. Competitiveness within the industry. The BCG Matrix Based on the analysis, the company can decide whether to invest in a product, or divest itself. Miles and Snow offered four possible strategic positions: • Prospectors, who were entrepreneurially exploring new domains; • Analyzers, who were a bit like the design school prescription? • Defenders, who were interested only in responding to strategic problems by protecting themselves; and • Reactors, who were only responsive to others. III. Complexity- based on wise policy makers. The era of complexity is one of constant risk and change with many models of delivery and structure. Company is at risk of becoming irrelevant in the market if they don’t: Innovate. Change. Move from softball to hardball. Both the design era and the positioning era, according to Coad (2005), emphasize predictability, order and control in a world of complexity and uncertainty, and tended to focus on the organisation as a sealed unit. However firms in the era of complexity slow to adapt to that fact.
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2. Strategy implementation: once a strategy is selected, leader should follow the five steps of strategy implementation: Configuring – make sure the strategy is clear and communicated. Enable Org to consider its environment and its characteristics. Facilitating – ensure that the organisation has and can build capability through building resources, physical assets and human assets. It is matter of building relationship. Delivering (executing) – implementing the strategy. Develop KPIs to track progress and help with feedback. Develop performance based reward system. Evaluating (monitors &control) – an effective leader must put mechanisms in place to ensure the strategy is working. This might include sales targets, profit levels. Leaders need to consider four levels of evaluation: 1 Compare (Planned vs. Actual) what was intended with what happened, and enquire into causes and meanings, in order to learn, but not to punish. 2 Consider the ideas that informed the course of action, consider whether these were well enough understood, and seek gaps in understanding in order to consider how to fill them. 3 Consider the debates and analysis that took place and are taking place in the configuration process. What was included and excluded? What might be reconsidered? What new ideas might help here to reconsider the processes of configuration? 4 Engage (stakeholder Managements) in dialogue as much as possible with the varied stakeholders as to their perceptions and evaluations in order to gather the widest understanding.
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Changing (Integrated change control) – perhaps the most important step. The leader must be prepared to redesign the strategy if it isn’t working, or external forces demand something else be done. 3. Strategic alignment: Alignment refers to the need to align the organization to the strategy. Clearly alignment is a major task of the strategic leaders. One would want to ensure strategy alignment with: • Staff – ensure they understand the strategy and their roles in it. Emphasis its purpose and urgency. • Organisational culture. • Control mechanisms. • Internal/external resources. • Organisational structure. • Goals of the organisation. Alignment process: Make sure that mission statement fits with managers’ knowledge → ensure that all employees have a copy explained to them → ensure they understand it → encourage buy-in and commitments to the mission statement → ensure the actions to implement the change are done and reported. Any strategic change will be met with some resistance – expect this, and use persuasion and engagement to get them on board, rather than positional power.
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Building leadership teams: Underpinning leadership behaviour: Self-leadership: self-knowledge and self-discipline to select appropriate behaviour. Transcendent leadership: behaviours, skills that are appropriate across all situation. Mostly important: integrity (tell the truth – do what you say you are going to do). 1. Leading Individual: Situational leadership level of development D1 – D2 – D3 – D4. 2. Leading Teams: team formation: Forming (S1 directing) – Storming (S2 Coaching) – Norming (S3 Supporting) – Performing (S4 Delegating). 3. Source of power: Legitimate – Coercive – Reward – Referent – Expert 4. Kouzes and Possner five key practices of exemplary leaders (MICEE): Model the way: Planning, setting goals, WBS, values & ideas& beliefs. Inspire a shared vision: Future, dreams, forecast. Challenge the process (status quo): Development, improvement, learning and risk taking. Enable other to act: Empowerment, relationship, training and collaboration. Encourage the heart: Transformational leadership- emotional Intelligence, reward, recognition, appreciation and praising. 5. Path-Goal theory: Motivation for team. 6. Effective communication. 7. Context of change. 8. Frame work + organizational practices. 9. Three track of developments.
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Culture, Gender and Ethics: Culture can be an issue within any organization. Largely, culture is a product of the country and traditions in which the organisation is based and little can be done to change that. However, there are some things leaders can do to shift the organizational culture. Culture is about attitude, values and beliefs. If company move into international market, it should focus on developing Transcultural leader, by teaching executives: hofstede, house, Goffe&Jones): 1. It would be useful to look at the organisation in the light of Hofstedes research, into what defines the culture of an organisation: (Organizational culture is essentially how the organisation has been behaving. It has a lot to do with the kind of and age of employees, the social structure, the demographics and the type of organisation.) MPCU A. Power distance:the degree to which organizations were hierarchic. High power distance organisation prefers leaders who are less participative, Low power distance organisation prefer egalitarianism (equality). B. Uncertainty avoidance:the degree to which individuals preferred to avoid uncertainty. High uncertainty avoidance countries do planning for risk MGT; Low uncertainty avoidance countries prefer flexibility and innovation. C. Collectivism:the degree to which decisions are made by an individual, as opposed to a group. Collectivism leaders prefer transformational leadership, Individualist leaders prefer transactional leadership. D. Masculinity:the degree to which male characteristics were preferred over feminine characteristics. Feminism deals more with gender egalitarianism, charisma and vision. 2. House defined three different ways in which leaders and culture came together (three propositions):
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A. Leader’s behaviour can be congruent (aligned) with culture in which they are imbedded. B. Leader behaviour might be slightly different (slightly incongruent) with culture, that might lead to innovation and change. C. Leader behaviors are almost universal. Culture had little or no impact here. 3. Goffee and Jones’s solidarity matrix sets out four types of Organisational behaviours/cultures: Gender: 1. Mode of conduct: Feminine linked with transformational theory; emotional intelligence, Charisma vs. Masculine linked with transactional theory. 2. Leadership style: women (participative, democratic) Vs. Men (Directive, autocratic). 3. Soft & interpersonal skills: Women (communication, empathy, conflict handling, negotiating, interactive, collaboration). Vs. Men (Competitive, aggressive, strategic planning, winning). 4. Orientation: Women (relationship) Vs. Men (task). 5. Culture: Women (collectivism, community, gender egalitairism) Vs. Men (individualism, independence, separate sex roles).
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Ethics can be defined as that which tries to explain things, like what is good, compassion, love, truth and what is right or wrong. Ethics and law are similar in that they both have moral obligation and are different since ethics are not documented and not punishable legally. 1. Ethical behaviour has two components (the challenges of ethics): finding what is right And then doing what is right. 2. Ethics development( Ethical decisions) in any organisation can follow any of three processes: Type of unethical roadmap Advantages Disadvantages Deontological/Contractarian: Ethical decisions are made Such principles can be well Outcomes are not against relatively unchanging principles that set out our understood and interpreted, considered: adherence to rights, roles and duties. Contractarian theory would dismiss and what is ‘right’ can be principles could lead to a any consequential damage of our ethical choices as long clearly defined. lesser good. as the choice was consistent with agreed principles. Unfortunately, such consequences may well be morally unacceptable. It is unrealistic to attempt to justify standing by our principles, regardless of the outcomes. Utilitarian/outcome morality: Ethical decisions are made Flexibility in ethical The processes are not based on outcomes, the path which will likely lead to the Decision-making will lead to considered, so even greatest good. the best outcome. unethical or unlawful means of achieving the best outcome can be employed. Moral judgment: Ethical decisions are made based on Ethical decisions rest on Methods to assess and internal moral virtues that support a life worth living. These internal strength of character develop internal virtues two dimensions lead to the identification of character traits traits and morality, and are not well established or virtues. The social dimension is based on the fact that balance emotion and and decisions must still be we need to live in a community. Traits include: Loyalty, judgment made within an external fairness, compassion, friendliness. By contrast, the context. aspirational virtues promote inner peace. They are what help differentiate humans from other community dwelling creatures, for they give us the sense that we have space to accomplish something, to find a purpose for our lives, to develop a sense of personal fulfillment. The virtues associated with the aspirational dimension include sensibility, ambition, enthusiasm, modesty and self- knowledge.
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3. The Ethical position of the business (ethical Business stances): Negative – Congruent – Positive: The ethical position of the business Negative ethical gap: The organization positions itself so that it’s ethical practices lag behind societal expectations and actively resists pressures, particularly as they effect profitability. Ethical congruence: The organization identifies changing societal expectations and positions its products or service to meet those Expectations. Positive ethical gap: The organization positions itself so that its ethical practices exceed societal expectations, actively setting a standard and perhaps providing leadership in The development of ethical practices. 4. It is very clear that the actions of Organisational leaders impact on the behaviour of their follower. Therefore if leaders wish to ensure that their organisation act in ethical manner, they must not only model ethical behaviours themselves, but also ensure that their subordinates model those behaviours as well. 5. Company, will have to come up with a code of conduct that is fully supported by top leadership to avoid any further ethical issues in the organisation as a whole. This code of conduct should be focused internally and should be inspirational. Leadership will also communicate and ensure implementation of the code of conduct through the introduction of rewards and sanctions depending on the compliance terms. This would ensure good business since good ethics equals good business.
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