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THE INTERNET OF THINGS: AN OVERVIEW Understanding the Issues and Challenges of a More Connected World OCTOBER 2015 COLOUR PRINT VERSION
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THE INTERNET OF THINGS: AN OVERVIEW Understanding the Issues and Challenges of a More Connected World Karen Rose, Scott Eldridge, Lyman Chapin OCTOBER 2015 COLOUR PRINT VERSION © 2015 The Internet Society (ISOC). This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/NonCommercial/ShareAlike 4.0 Unported license.
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CONTENTS Executive Summary................................................................................................................................4 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................8 WHAT IS THE INTERNET OF THINGS? 11 Origins, Drivers and Applications...............................................................................12 Different Definitions, Similar Concepts............................................................16 Internet of Things Communications Models.............................................18 Device-To-Device Communications 18 Device-To-Cloud Communications 19 Device-to-Gateway Model 20 Back-End Data-Sharing Model 22 Internet of Things Communications Models Summary 23 WHAT ISSUES ARE RAISED BY THE INTERNET OF THINGS? 27 Security Issues............................................................................................................................................31 The IoT Security Challenge 32 A Spectrum of Security Considerations 33 Unique Security Challenges of IoT Devices 34 IoT Security Questions 35 Privacy Considerations................................................................................................................39 Internet of Things Privacy Background 40 Unique Privacy Aspects of Internet of Things 41 IoT Privacy Questions 42 2
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Interoperability/ Standards Issues..........................................................................45 IoT Interoperability / Standards Background 46 Key Considerations and Challenges in IoT Interoperability / Standards 47 Interoperability Questions 50 Legal, Regulatory, and Rights Issues...................................................................53 Data Protection and Crossborder Data Flows 54 IoT Data Discrimination 55 IoT Devices as Aids to Law Enforcement and Public Safety 56 IoT Device Liability 57 Proliferation of IoT Devices Used in Legal Actions 58 Regulatory, Legal, and Rights Issues Summary 58 Emerging Economy and Development Issues........................................61 Ensuring IoT Opportunities are Global 62 Economic and Development Opportunities 62 IoT Emerging Economy and Development Questions 64 CONCLUSION 67 FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 71 Organizations and Alliances Working on the Internet of Things 72 Government Policy, Research, and Coordination Efforts 74 Notes and Acknowledgements 75 3
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Executive Summary EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Internet of Things is an emerging topic of technical, social, and economic significance. Consumer products, durable goods, cars and trucks, industrial and utility components, sensors, and other everyday objects are being combined with Internet connectivity and powerful data analytic capabilities that promise to transform the way we work, live, and play. Projections for the impact of IoT on the Internet and economy are impressive, with some anticipating as many as 100 billion connected IoT devices and a global economic impact of more than $11 trillion by 2025. At the same time, however, the Internet of Things raises significant challenges that could stand in the way of realizing its potential benefits. News headlines about the hacking of Internet-connected devices, surveillance concerns, and privacy fears already have captured public attention. Technical challenges remain and new policy, legal and development challenges are emerging. This overview document is designed to help the Internet Society community navigate the dialogue surrounding the Internet of Things in light of the competing predictions about its promises and perils. The Internet of Things engages a broad set of ideas that are complex and intertwined from different perspectives. 4
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The Internet Of Things: An Overview Key concepts that serve as a foundation for exploring the opportunities and challenges of IoT include: IOT DEFINITIONS The term Internet of Things generally refers to scenarios where network connectivity and computing capability extends to objects, sensors and everyday items not normally considered computers, allowing these devices to generate, exchange and consume data with minimal human intervention. There is, however, no single, universal definition. ENABLING The concept of combining computers, sensors, and networks TECHNOLOGIES to monitor and control devices has existed for decades. The recent confluence of several technology market trends, however, is bringing the Internet of Things closer to widespread reality. These include Ubiquitous Connectivity, Widespread Adoption of IP-based Networking, Computing Economics, Miniaturization, Advances in Data Analytics, and the Rise of Cloud Computing. CONNECTIVITY IoT implementations use different technical communications MODELS models, each with its own characteristics. Four common communications models described by the Internet Architecture Board include: Device-to-Device, Device-to-Cloud, Device-to- Gateway, and Back-End Data-Sharing. These models highlight the flexibility in the ways that IoT devices can connect and provide value to the user. TRANSFORMATIONAL If the projections and trends towards IoT become reality, it may POTENTIAL force a shift in thinking about the implications and issues in a world where the most common interaction with the Internet comes from passive engagement with connected objects rather than active engagement with content. The potential realization of this outcome—a “hyperconnected world”—is testament to the general-purpose nature of the Internet architecture itself, which does not place inherent limitations on the applications or services that can make use of the technology. 5
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Executive Summary Five key IoT issue areas are examined to explore some of the most pressing challenges and questions related to the technology. These include security; privacy; interoperability and standards; legal, regulatory, and rights; and emerging economies and development. SECURITY While security considerations are not new in the and resilience of the Internet globally. This context of information technology, the attributes challenge is amplified by other considerations of many IoT implementations present new and like the mass-scale deployment of homogenous unique security challenges. Addressing these IoT devices, the ability of some devices to challenges and ensuring security in IoT products automatically connect to other devices, and the and services must be a fundamental priority. likelihood of fielding these devices in unsecure Users need to trust that IoT devices and related environments. data services are secure from vulnerabilities, especially as this technology become more As a matter of principle, developers and users pervasive and integrated into our daily lives. of IoT devices and systems have a collective Poorly secured IoT devices and services can obligation to ensure they do not expose users and serve as potential entry points for cyber attack the Internet itself to potential harm. Accordingly, a and expose user data to theft by leaving data collaborative approach to security will be needed streams inadequately protected. to develop effective and appropriate solutions to IoT security challenges that are well suited to the The interconnected nature of IoT devices scale and complexity of the issues. means that every poorly secured device that is connected online potentially affects the security PRIVACY The full potential of the Internet of Things used, and protected. For example, IoT amplifies depends on strategies that respect individual concerns about the potential for increased privacy choices across a broad spectrum surveillance and tracking, difficulty in being of expectations. The data streams and user able to opt out of certain data collection, and specificity afforded by IoT devices can unlock the strength of aggregating IoT data streams incredible and unique value to IoT users, but to paint detailed digital portraits of users. concerns about privacy and potential harms While these are important challenges, they might hold back full adoption of the Internet are not insurmountable. In order to realize of Things. This means that privacy rights and the opportunities, strategies will need to be respect for user privacy expectations are integral developed to respect individual privacy choices to ensuring user trust and confidence in the across a broad spectrum of expectations, while Internet, connected devices, and related services. still fostering innovation in new technology and services. Indeed, the Internet of Things is redefining the debate about privacy issues, as many implementations can dramatically change the ways personal data is collected, analyzed, 6
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The Internet Of Things: An Overview INTEROPERABILITY / STANDARDS A fragmented environment of proprietary IoT the networking resources they connect to and technical implementations will inhibit value for the broader Internet. Appropriate standards, users and industry. While full interoperability reference models, and best practices also will across products and services is not always help curb the proliferation of devices that may feasible or necessary, purchasers may be act in disrupted ways to the Internet. The use of hesitant to buy IoT products and services if generic, open, and widely available standards there is integration inflexibility, high ownership as technical building blocks for IoT devices and complexity, and concern over vendor lock-in. services (such as the Internet Protocol) will support greater user benefits, innovation, and In addition, poorly designed and configured IoT economic opportunity. devices may have negative consequences for LEGAL, REGULATORY, AND RIGHTS The use of IoT devices raises many new potentially causing discriminatory outcomes for regulatory and legal questions as well as some users. Other legal issues with IoT devices amplifies existing legal issues around the Internet. include the conflict between law enforcement The questions are wide in scope, and the rapid surveillance and civil rights; data retention rate of change in IoT technology frequently and destruction policies; and legal liability for outpaces the ability of the associated policy, unintended uses, security breaches or privacy legal, and regulatory structures to adapt. lapses. One set of issues surrounds crossborder data While the legal and regulatory challenges are flows, which occur when IoT devices collect data broad and complex in scope, adopting the guiding about people in one jurisdiction and transmit it to Internet Society principles of promoting a user’s another jurisdiction with different data protection ability to connect, speak, innovate, share, choose, laws for processing. Further, data collected by and trust are core considerations for evolving IoT IoT devices is sometimes susceptible to misuse, laws and regulations that enable user rights. EMERGING ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES The Internet of Things holds significant The broad scope of IoT challenges will not be promise for delivering social and economic unique to industrialized countries. Developing benefits to emerging and developing regions also will need to respond to realize economies. This includes areas such as the potential benefits of IoT. In addition, the sustainable agriculture, water quality and use, unique needs and challenges of implementation healthcare, industrialization, and environmental in less-developed regions will need to be management, among others. As such, IoT holds addressed, including infrastructure readiness, promise as a tool in achieving the United Nations market and investment incentives, technical skill Sustainable Development Goals. requirements, and policy resources. The Internet of Things is happening now. It Ultimately, solutions for maximizing the benefits promises to offer a revolutionary, fully connected of the Internet of Things while minimizing the “smart” world as the relationships between risks will not be found by engaging in a polarized objects, their environment, and people become debate that pits the promises of IoT against more tightly intertwined. Yet the issues and its possible perils. Rather, it will take informed challenges associated with IoT need to be engagement, dialogue, and collaboration across considered and addressed in order for the a range of stakeholders to plot the most effective potential benefits for individuals, society, and the ways forward. economy to be realized. 7
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Introduction INTRODUCTION The Internet of Things (IoT) is an important topic in technology industry, policy, and engineering circles and has become headline news in both the specialty press and the popular media. This technology is embodied in a wide spectrum of networked products, systems, and sensors, which take advantage of advancements in computing power, electronics miniaturization, and network interconnections to offer new capabilities not previously possible. An abundance of conferences, reports, and news articles discuss and debate the prospective impact of the “IoT revolution”—from new market opportunities and business models to concerns about security, privacy, and technical interoperability. The large-scale implementation of IoT devices chain of production using networked sensors. promises to transform many aspects of the way However, IoT raises many issues and challenges we live. For consumers, new IoT products like that need to be considered and addressed in Internet-enabled appliances, home automation order for potential benefits to be realized. components, and energy management devices are moving us toward a vision of the “smart A number of companies and research home’’, offering more security and energy- organizations have offered a wide range of efficiency. Other personal IoT devices like projections about the potential impact of IoT on wearable fitness and health monitoring devices the Internet and the economy during the next and network-enabled medical devices are five to ten years. Cisco, for example, projects transforming the way healthcare services are more than 24 billion Internet–connected objects delivered. This technology promises to be by 2019;2 Morgan Stanley, however, projects beneficial for people with disabilities and the 75 billion networked devices by 2020.3 Looking elderly, enabling improved levels of independence out further and raising the stakes higher, and quality of life at a reasonable cost.1 IoT Huawei forecasts 100 billion IoT connections by systems like networked vehicles, intelligent traffic 2025.4 McKinsey Global Institute suggests that systems, and sensors embedded in roads and the financial impact of IoT on the global economy bridges move us closer to the idea of “smart may be as much as $3.9 to $11.1 trillion by 2025.5 cities’’, which help minimize congestion and While the variability in predictions makes any energy consumption. IoT technology offers the specific number questionable, collectively they possibility to transform agriculture, industry, and paint a picture of significant growth energy production and distribution by increasing and influence. the availability of information along the value 8
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The Internet Of Things: An Overview Some observers see the IoT as a revolutionary We organize this paper into fully–interconnected “smart” world of progress, efficiency, and opportunity, with the potential for four main sections: adding billions in value to industry and the global economy.6 Others warn that the IoT represents a darker world of surveillance, privacy and security WHAT IS THE INTERNET OF violations, and consumer lock–in. News headlines THINGS? about the hacking of Internet-connected automobiles,7 surveillance concerns stemming from voice recognition features in “smart” TVs,8 Provides an overview of its origins, definitions, and privacy fears stemming from the potential and technical connectivity models. misuse of IoT data9 have captured public attention. PAGE 11 This “promise vs. peril” debate along with an influx of information though popular media and marketing can make the IoT a complex topic WHAT ISSUES ARE RAISED BY to understand. THE INTERNET OF THINGS? Fundamentally, the Internet Society cares about the IoT as it represents a growing aspect of Provides an introduction and discussion of how people and institutions are likely to interact concerns that have been raised about IoT. with the Internet in their personal, social, and PAGE 27 economic lives. If even modest projections are correct, an explosion of IoT applications could present a fundamental shift in how users engage CONCLUSION with and are impacted by the Internet, raising new issues and different dimensions of existing PAGE 67 challenges across user/consumer concerns, technology, policy and law. IoT also will likely have varying consequences in different economies and FOR FURTHER INFORMATION regions, bringing a diverse set of opportunities and challenges across the globe. Provides additional information and pointers to This overview document is designed to help the efforts around the world addressing IoT issues. Internet Society community navigate the dialogue PAGE 71 surrounding the Internet of Things in light of the competing predictions about its promises and perils. It provides a high-level overview of the basics of IoT and some of the key issues and questions that this technology raises from the perspective of the Internet Society and the core values we promote.10,11 It also acknowledges some of the unique aspects of the Internet of Things that make this a transformational technology for the Internet. As this is intended to be an overview document, we do not propose a specific course of action for ISOC on IoT at this time. Rather, we see this document as an informational resource and starting point for discussion within the ISOC community on IoT-related issues. 9
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Introduction SECTION NOTES Introduction 1. For more information on IoT as it relates 8. “Samsung Smart TV’s Voice Recognition with those with disabilities see for example: Creates Privacy Concerns.” CBS This Valerio, Pablo. “Google: IoT Can Help The Morning. CBS News, February 10, 2015. Disabled.” InformationWeek, March 10, 2015. http://www.cbsnews.com/videos/samsung- http://www.informationweek.com/mobile/ smart-tvs-voice-recognition-creates- mobile-devices/google-iot-can-help-the- privacy-concerns/ disabled/a/d-id/1319404; and, Domingo, Mari Carmen. “An Overview of the Internet of 9. Bradbury, Danny. “How Can Privacy Things for People with Disabilities.” Journal Survive in the Era of the Internet of of Network and Computer Applications 35, Things?” The Guardian, April 7, 2015, sec. no. 2 (March 2012): 584–96. doi:10.1016/j. Technology. http://www.theguardian.com/ jnca.2011.10.015. technology/2015/apr/07/how-can-privacy- survive-the-internet-of-things 2. “Cloud and Mobile Network Traffic Forecast - Visual Networking Index (VNI).” Cisco, 10. “Values and Principles.” Principles. Internet 2015. http://cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/ Society, 2015. http://www.internetsociety. service-provider/visual-networking-index- org/who-we-are/mission/values-and- vni/index.html principles 3. Danova, Tony. “Morgan Stanley: 75 Billion 11. A wide range of papers and articles have Devices Will Be Connected To The Internet been written on the topic of IoT. Readers Of Things By 2020.” Business Insider, interested in more detail beyond the scope October 2, 2013. http://www.businessinsider. of this paper should investigate the literature com/75-billion-devices-will-be-connected- noted in the footnotes and in the Reference to-the-internet-by-2020-2013-10 section at the end of this paper. 4. “Global Connectivity Index.” Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd., 2015. Web. 6 Sept. 2015. http://www.huawei.com/minisite/gci/ en/index.html 5. Manyika, James, Michael Chui, Peter Bisson, Jonathan Woetzel, Richard Dobbs, Jacques Bughin, and Dan Aharon. “The Internet of Things: Mapping the Value Beyond the Hype.” McKinsey Global Institute, June 2015. 6. Thierer, Adam, and Andrea Castillo. “Projecting the Growth and Economic Impact of The Internet of Things.” George Mason University, Mercatus Center, June 15, 2015. http://mercatus.org/sites/default/ files/IoT-EP-v3.pdf 7. Greenberg, Andy. “Hackers Remotely Kill a Jeep on the Highway—With Me in It.” WIRED, July 21, 2015. http://www.wired. com/2015/07/hackers-remotely-kill-jeep- highway/ 10
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What is the Internet of Things? ORIGINS, DRIVERS AND APPLICATIONS The term “Internet of Things” (IoT) was first used in 1999 by British technology pioneer Kevin Ashton to describe a system in which objects in the physical world could be connected to the Internet by sensors.12 Ashton coined the term to illustrate the power of connecting Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) tags13 used in corporate supply chains to the Internet in order to count and track goods without the need for human intervention. Today, the Internet of Things has become a popular term for describing scenarios in which Internet connectivity and computing capability extend to a variety of objects, devices, sensors, and everyday items. While the term “Internet of Things” is relatively the Trojan Room at the University of Cambridge new, the concept of combining computers and in the UK (which remained Internet–connected networks to monitor and control devices has until 2001). From these whimsical beginnings, been around for decades. By the late 1970s, a robust field of research and development into for example, systems for remotely monitoring “smart object networking”19 helped create the meters on the electrical grid via telephone foundation for today’s Internet of Things. lines were already in commercial use.14 In the 1990s, advances in wireless technology allowed If the idea of connecting objects to each other “machine–to–machine” (M2M) enterprise and and to the Internet is not new, it is reasonable industrial solutions for equipment monitoring and to ask, “Why is the Internet of Things a newly operation to become widespread. Many of these popular topic today?” early M2M solutions, however, were based on From a broad perspective, the confluence of closed purpose–built networks and proprietary several technology and market trends20 is or industry–specific standards,15 rather than making it possible to interconnect more and on Internet Protocol (IP)–based networks and smaller devices cheaply and easily (See Box 1, Internet standards. page 13). Using IP to connect devices other than computers to the Internet is not a new idea. The first Internet “device”—an IP–enabled toaster that could be turned on and off over the Internet—was featured at an Internet conference in 1990.16 Over the next several years, other “things” were IP– enabled, including a soda machine17 at Carnegie Mellon University in the US and a coffee pot18 in 12
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The Internet Of Things: An Overview BOX 1 TECHNOLOGY AND MARKET TRENDS DRIVING IOT UBIQUITOUS WIDESPREAD ADOPTION OF CONNECTIVITY IP-BASED NETWORKING Low–cost, high–speed, pervasive network IP has become the dominant global standard for connectivity, especially through licensed and networking, providing a well–defined and widely unlicensed wireless services and technology, implemented platform of software and tools that makes almost everything “connectable’’. can be incorporated into a broad range of devices easily and inexpensively. COMPUTING MINIATURIZATION ECONOMICS Driven by industry investment in research, Manufacturing advances allow cutting-edge development, and manufacturing, Moore’s law21 computing and communications technology continues to deliver greater computing power to be incorporated into very small objects.23 at lower price points and lower Coupled with greater computing economics, power consumption.22 this has fueled the advancement of small and inexpensive sensor devices, which drive many IoT applications. ADVANCES IN RISE OF DATA ANALYTICS CLOUD COMPUTING New algorithms and rapid increases in Cloud computing, which leverages remote, computing power, data storage, and cloud networked computing resources to process, services enable the aggregation, correlation, manage, and store data, allows small and and analysis of vast quantities of data; these distributed devices to interact with powerful large and dynamic datasets provide new back-end analytic and control capabilities. opportunities for extracting information and knowledge.
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What is the Internet of Things? In their report “Unlocking the Potential of 70% the Internet of Things’’, the McKinsey Global Institute25 describes the broad range of potential applications in terms of “settings” where IoT is expected to create value for industry and users (see Box 2, page 15). Many organizations have developed their Cisco estimates that proportion of own taxonomies and categorizations of IoT Internet traffic generated by non-PC applications and use cases. For example, “Industrial IoT’’ is a term widely used by devices will rise to just under 70% companies and associations to describe IoT applications related to the production of goods by 2019. and services, including in manufacturing and utilities.26 Others discuss IoT by device type, such as wearables27 and appliances.28 Still others user’s behalf, with little human intervention or focus on IoT in the context of integrated location- even awareness. based implementations such as “smart homes” or “smart cities’’.29 Whatever the application, it is IoT may force a shift in thinking if the most clear that IoT use cases could extend to nearly common interaction with the Internet—and every aspect of our lives. the data derived and exchanged from that interaction—comes from passive engagement As the number of Internet-connected devices with connected objects in the broader grows, the amount of traffic they generate is environment. The potential realization of this expected to rise significantly. For example, Cisco outcome—a “hyperconnected world”—is a estimates that Internet traffic generated by testament to the general-purpose nature of non-PC devices will rise from 40% in 2014 to just the Internet architecture, which does not place under 70% in 2019.30 Cisco also forecasts that inherent limitations on the applications or the number of “Machine to Machine” (“M2M”) services that can make use of the technology.32 connections (including in industrial, home, healthcare, automotive, and other IoT verticals) will rise from 24% of all connected devices in 2014 to 43% in 2019. One implication of these trends is that over the next ten years we could see a shift in the popular notion of what it means to be “on the Internet’’. As MIT Professor Neil Gershenfied noted, “…[T]he rapid growth of the World Wide Web may have been just the trigger charge that is now setting off the real explosion, as things start to use the Net’’.31 In the popular mindset, the World Wide Web has almost become synonymous with the Internet itself. Web technologies facilitate most interactions between people and content, making it a defining characteristic of the current Internet experience. The Web-based experience is largely characterized by the active engagement of users downloading and generating content through computers and smartphones. If the growth projections about IoT become reality, we may see a shift towards more passive Internet interaction by users with objects such as car components, home appliances and self-monitoring devices; these devices send and receive data on the 14
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The Internet Of Things: An Overview BOX 2 “SETTINGS” FOR IOT APPLICATIONS SETTING EXAMPLES HUMAN Devices (wearables and ingestibles) to monitor and maintain human health and wellness; disease management, increased Devices attached or inside the fitness, higher productivity human body HOME Home controllers and security systems Buildings where people live RETAIL Stores, banks, restaurants, arenas—anywhere consumers ENVIRONMENTS consider and buy; self-checkout, in-store offers, inventory optimization Spaces where consumers engage in commerce OFFICES Energy management and security in office buildings; improved productivity, including for mobile employees Spaces where knowledge workers work FACTORIES Places with repetitive work routines, including hospitals and farms; operating efficiencies, optimizing equipment use and Standardized production environments inventory WORKSITES Mining, oil and gas, construction; operating efficiencies, predictive maintenance, health and safety Custom production environments VEHICLES Vehicles including cars, trucks, ships, aircraft, and trains; condition-based maintenance, usage-based design, pre- Systems inside moving vehicles sales analytics CITIES Public spaces and infrastructure in urban settings; adaptive traffic control, smart meters, environmental monitoring, Urban environments resource management OUTSIDE Outside uses include railroad tracks, autonomous vehicles (outside urban locations), and flight navigation; real-time Between urban environments routing, connected navigation, shipment tracking (and outside other settings) SOURCE: McKinsey Global Institute24 15
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What is the Internet of Things? DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS, SIMILAR CONCEPTS Despite the global buzz around the Internet of Things, there is no single, universally accepted definition for the term. Different definitions are used by various groups to describe or promote a particular view of what IoT means and its most important attributes. Some definitions specify the concept of the Internet or the Internet Protocol (IP), while others, perhaps surprisingly, do not. For example, consider the following definitions: The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) begins RFC 3.2.2 Internet of things (IoT): A global 7452,33 “Architectural Considerations in Smart infrastructure for the information Object Networking’’, with this description: society, enabling advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual) things The term “Internet of Things” (IoT) denotes based on existing and evolving interoperable a trend where a large number of embedded information and communication technologies. devices employ communication services offered by the Internet protocols. Many of Note 1—Through the exploitation of these devices, often called “smart objects,’’ identification, data capture, processing and are not directly operated by humans, but exist communication capabilities, the IoT makes full as components in buildings or vehicles, or are use of things to offer services to all kinds of spread out in the environment. applications, whilst ensuring that security and Within the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), privacy requirements are fulfilled. the term “smart object networking” is commonly used in reference to the Internet of Things. In this Note 2—From a broader perspective, context, “smart objects” are devices that typically the IoT can be perceived as a vision with have significant constraints, such as limited technological and societal implications. power, memory, and processing resources, This definition in a call for papers for a feature or bandwidth.34 Work in the IETF is organized topic issue of IEEE Communications Magazine37 around specific requirements to achieve network links the IoT back to cloud services: interoperability between several types of smart objects.35 The Internet of Things (IoT) is a framework in which all things have a representation and Published in 2012, the International a presence in the Internet. More specifically, Telecommunication Union (ITU) ITU–T the Internet of Things aims at offering Recommendation Y.2060, Overview of the new applications and services bridging Internet of things,36 discusses the concept of the physical and virtual worlds, in which interconnectivity, but does not specifically tie the Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communications IoT to the Internet: represents the baseline communication that 16
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The Internet Of Things: An Overview enables the interactions between Things and users of IoT devices are likely to be more applications in the cloud. concerned with the services delivered and the implication of using those services than issues The Oxford Dictionaries38 offers a concise of when or where data passes through an IP- definition that invokes the Internet as an element based network. of the IoT: Internet of things (noun): The interconnection via the Internet of computing devices embedded in everyday objects, enabling them to send and receive data. All of the definitions describe scenarios in For purposes of this paper, the terms which network connectivity and computing capability extends to a constellation of objects, “Internet of Things” and “IOT” refer devices, sensors, and everyday items that are broadly to the extension of network not ordinarily considered to be “computers’’; this allows the devices to generate, exchange, connectivity and computing capability to and consume data, often with minimal human intervention. The various definitions of IoT do objects, devices, sensors, and items not not necessarily disagree—rather they emphasize ordinarily considered to be computers. different aspects of the IoT phenomenon from different focal points and use cases. However, the disparate definitions could be a source of confusion in dialogue on IoT issues, particularly in discussions between stakeholder groups or industry segments.Similar confusion was experienced in recent years about net neutrality and cloud computing, where different interpretations of the terms sometimes presented obstacles to dialogue. While it is probably unnecessary to develop a single definition of IoT, it should be recognized that there are different perspectives to be factored into discussions. For the purposes of this paper, the terms “Internet of Things” and “IoT” refer broadly to the extension of network connectivity and computing capability to objects, devices, sensors, and items not ordinarily considered to be computers. These “smart objects” require minimal human intervention to generate, exchange, and consume data; they often feature connectivity to remote data collection, analysis, and management capabilities. Networking and communications models for smart objects include those where exchanged data does not traverse the Internet or an IP- based network. We include those models in our broad description of “Internet of Things” used for this paper. We do so as it is likely that the data generated or processed from those smart objects will ultimately pass through gateways with connectivity to IP-based networks or will otherwise be incorporated into product features that are accessible via the Internet. Furthermore, 17
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What is the Internet of Things? INTERNET OF THINGS COMMUNICATIONS MODELS From an operational perspective, it is useful to think about how IoT devices connect and communicate in terms of their technical communication models. In March 2015, the Internet Architecture Board (IAB) released a guiding architectural document for networking of smart objects (RFC 7452),39 which outlines a framework of four common communication models used by IoT devices. The discussion below presents this framework and explains key characteristics of each model in the framework. Device-To-Device Communications The device-to-device communication model This device-to-device communication approach represents two or more devices that directly illustrates many of the interoperability challenges connect and communicate between one another, discussed later in this paper. As an IETF Journal rather than through an intermediary application article describes, “these devices often have a server. These devices communicate over many direct relationship, they usually have built-in types of networks, including IP networks or security and trust [mechanisms], but they also the Internet. Often, however these devices use device-specific data models that require use protocols like Bluetooth,40 Z-Wave,41 or redundant development efforts [by device ZigBee42 to establish direct device-to-device manufacturers]”.43 This means that the device communications, as shown in Figure 1. manufacturers need to invest in development efforts to implement device-specific data formats These device-to-device networks allow devices rather than open approaches that enable use of that adhere to a particular communication standard data formats. protocol to communicate and exchange messages to achieve their function. This From the user’s point of view, this often means communication model is commonly used in that underlying device-to-device communication applications like home automation systems, protocols are not compatible, forcing the user to which typically use small data packets of select a family of devices that employ a common information to communicate between devices protocol. For example, the family of devices using with relatively low data rate requirements. the Z-Wave protocol is not natively compatible Residential IoT devices like light bulbs, light with the ZigBee family of devices. While these switches, thermostats, and door locks normally incompatibilities limit user choice to devices send small amounts of information to each other within a particular protocol family, the user (e.g. a door lock status message or turn on light benefits from knowing that products within a command) in a home automation scenario. particular family tend to communicate well. 18
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