Milestones in Discovery and Invention h ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE MIRRORS FOR THE MIND Harry Henderson To the researchers, the visionaries, and the critics. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: Mirrors for the Mind Copyright © 2007 by Harry Henderson All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Chelsea House An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 ISBN-10: 0-8160-5749-4 ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-5749-8 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Henderson, Harry. Artificial intelligence : mirrors for the mind / Harry Henderson. p. cm. — (Milestones in discovery and invention) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8160-5749-4 1. Artificial intelligence. I. Title. II. Series. Q335.H455 2007 006.3.—dc22 2006016639 Chelsea House books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Chelsea House on the World Wide Web at http://www.chelseahouse.com Text design by James Scotto-Lavino Cover design by Dorothy M. Preston Illustrations by Sholto Ainslie and Melissa Ericksen Printed in the United States of America MP FOF 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper. e CONTENTS PREFACE ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii INTRODUCTION xv 1 BEYOND CALCULATION: ALAN TURING AND THE BIRTH OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Science and Friendship Does It Compute? From Symbols to Codes Riddling the Enigma Designing Electronic Computers Toward AI The “Turing Test” Turing and Objections to AI Issues: Is the Turing Test a Dead End? The Final Enigma Chronology Further Reading 1 1 3 4 5 8 9 10 12 14 15 16 17 2 MIND